Spring is finally here with spells of sunshine, birds singing and flowers blooming! It’s the perfect time of year to explore medieval gardens and their many uses. Gardens during this period were highly practical and used to grow both food produce and medicinal plants. The British Library houses a blooming...

Henri de Mondeville (c. 1260 – 1316) was the surgeon to two kings of France - Philip IV and Louis X. In 1312 he wrote Cyrurgia (Surgery), one of the first works of its kind from the Middle Ages.

It all began as a project that medical researchers sometimes do to satisfy curiosity. They were testing a 1000-year-old recipe for an eye salve and were prepared to find that medieval medicine was backward and even superstitious. But when the results came back, they were shocked... (essay by John Horvat)

During the Middle Ages, one of ways physicians would check on the health of their patients was to look at their urine.

Muslim Heritage - Discover the golden age of Muslim civilisation.

A little clay pot holding a single coal burns some homemade incense, wafting a rich scent of frankincense and myrrh into the dry air. I feel a sense of clearness as I take a deep breath in, feeling the herbs penetrate my lungs and pierce deep into my spirit. A sense of calm washes over me […]

Medical discoveries and inventions by such men as Avicenna have been described as the foundation of today’s modern medicine. Learn more about the medieval masters.

Be happy you dont have to go through what these poor souls had to endure during these surgeries and medical procedures...

The chance of dying in pregnancy or childbirth was very real for medieval women, and still is in many Third World countries. In Medieval Catholic Western Europe, including Scandinavia, these risks, and the absence of medically schooled persons who could give efficient help, led many women to turn to the saints for intercession.

Most people generally think that Aromatherapy is a new practice and are not aware of just how long it has actually been used throughout history. This poem basically explains how we have travelled in a big circle with natural medicine, and now we are back at the beginning! A Short History of Medicine: "Doctor, I have an earache." 2000 B.C. : "Here, eat this root." 1000 B.C. : "That root is heathen. Say this prayer." 1850 A.D. : "That prayer is superstition. Drink this potion." 1940 A.D. : "That potion is snake oil. Swallow this pill." 1985 A.D. : "That pill is ineffective. Take this antibiotic." 2000 A.D. : "That antibiotic has side effects. Here, take this root!" Author unknown ORIGINS AND USES OF AROMATIC PLANTS Plant medicine has probably always been used by humans, but it is only with the beginnings of recorded history - about 5000BC - that we have direct evidence for this. From the archaeological discoveries of tombs engravings, papyri, stone and clay tablets and palm leaf texts of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia (Assyria and Babylonia) and India we know that aromatic plant materials were very important not only in magico-religious rituals but also in practical life (cooking and bathing) and in medicine. Egypt The Egyptians made much use of perfumed ointments as pleasing emollients: the celebrated golden throne of Tutankhaman depicts, on its back panel, the queen anointing the young king; on festal occasions the Egyptians used cones of perfumed ointment on their head which gradually melted in the heat and anointed their bodies. Consequently, in the daily toilet-ritual performed in temples for the pleasure of the gods, their cult images, as representatives of themselves, were solemnly anointed. Most archaeologists believe the Egyptians did not use essential oils as such (captured by distillation) but those plants and gums were made into oils and unguents by infusing them. However, according to Dr Jean Valnet, the Egyptians used a primitive form of distillation to extract the essential oils from plants. Water was poured into large clay pots over the plant material (usually cedarwood) and the pot openings were covered in woollen fibres. The pots were heated and the essential oils rose in the steam and became lodged within the wool. This was later squeezed to obtain the essential oil. Oil of cedarwood was highly prized for its use in embalmment, medicine and perfumery. It was also the most expensive and sought-after perfume in the whole of the ancient world. During the 1500 years following the eighteenth dynasty the Egyptians perfected their knowledge of the medicinal properties of aromatics, perfumery and of the making of scented unguents and oils. Over time a trade in spices, gums etc developed with other countries around the Mediterranean. During this period the Babylonians also made wide use of aromatics, particularly the oils of cedar, myrrh and cypress. Both Egypt and Babylon used these aromatics in mummification, protection of papyrus leaves from insect attack, as rejuvenating agents to preserve the complexion, in religious rites with the major use being for toiletry purposes. India The Egyptians were not the only early culture to appreciate the power of aromatics. In India, where the wisdom of aromatherapy is still practiced religiously, even in hospitals, references to the use of essences have been found in Vedic writing that dates back several thousand years. Numerous references in the Vedic texts and the Karma Sutra, a spiritual book that includes sacred poetry as well as extensive instructions for lovemaking and beauty care, suggest that sandalwood oil was the special favourite of India. China The ancient Chinese had a very refined understanding of aromatics, in terms of both medicinal and cosmetic properties. In the oldest known medical document, composed in China in 2000 BC, the emperor, Kiwang-Ti writes about the healing attributes of pomegranate, opium, and rhubarb. The Chinese eventually classified their remedies in terms of Yin (the 'feminine' principle, associated with wetness, darkness, passivity, and cold) and Yang (the 'masculine' principle, associated with dryness, light, motion, and heat); a Chinese healer always strove to restore a balance of these two opposite elements in the patient. Some of the most exotic essences such as jasmine and cinnamon originated in China which Europeans only discovered during the Crusades. Greece The Greeks learned a great deal from the Egyptians about the use of aromatics. They made elaborate use of oils on hair, feet, skin, jaw, eyebrows, knees etc. The pantheistic religion of the Greeks ascribed divinity to all plants, so they viewed plant essences as pure spirit. Perfume was also said to be heaven-sent via a nymph attending Aphrodite, the goddess of love. The Greeks developed an elaborate system for anointing different parts of the body with different types of scent. More importantly, Greek physicians began recording and classifying the properties of medicinal plants. Marestheus recognised that aromatic plants had stimulating or sedative qualities. Rose and hyacinth were considered refreshing and invigorating; lily and narcissus were sedative and hypnotic. The Greeks recognised that oils applied externally could affect internal organs and tissues. Hippocrates wrote that aromatic baths were useful in treating female disorders. Dioscorides, the famous Greek physician, wrote a five-volume treatise on herbal medicine, describing the plants of the Mediterranean region. One of the sections dealt with aromatics, and the properties he ascribed to these plants have been verified throughout history. Rome The Romans, if anything, were more elaborate than the Greeks in their use of aromatic oils. Several major cities had their own perfume districts. Some of the preparations traded there were very expensive, but the unguentarii, the Roman perfumers, never wanted for customers. At the public baths - the centre of Roman cultural life - men would luxuriate in steam baths fumigated with aromatic oil or bathe in a hot tub doused with oil and follow up with a massage with more fragrant oils. The Romans used oils and perfumes on virtually everything: their bodies, hair, clothes, furniture, the walls of their homes, and their flags. Galen was a Greek who served as Royal Physician to the Roman Emperor and his family. His extensive knowledge of plant remedies was evident in his writings, and he classified plants into categories, which are still known as Galenic. The Middle Ages Europe After the fall of Rome, Europe began to lose its pleasant smell. The Romans, their knowledge, and their intoxicating fragrances fled to Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire became awash with fragrance. Although medieval Europeans lost touch with the wisdom of personal cleanliness, they continued to be attracted to aromatics. The great plagues of the Middle Ages were largely a result of the horrendous absence of hygiene; interestingly, one of the few effective measures taken to combat the plague was fumigation with pine oil. Aromatics were the most powerful antiseptics available at the time. Those who worked with aromatics, especially the perfumers, to a greater degree appeared to be immune to the plague. The Sixteenth Century William Turner, the sixteen-century herbalist, is often referred to as the father of botany. He classified herbs and illnesses in terms of degrees of hot and cold. In some ways, his thinking was comparable to the medieval system of four elements - earth, wind, fire, and water-that were associated with different parts of the body. Turner created herbal remedies to correct physical illnesses - for him, manifestations of either too much internal heat or cold. That is, he used essential oils with "cooling" properties, such as peppermint, to treat illnesses of excessive heat, like fever. Another aspect of medieval medicine was the doctrine of signatures, the shape, colour or some other quality of the plant indicating the part of the body or the particular disease it would cure. The influence of the planets was also of great importance to the astrologer physician plants each having their ruling planet according to their individual qualities. The Seventeenth Century The seventeenth century inaugurated the golden age of herbal medicine. Most of the essential oils considered important today had been isolated by this time. This was the age of the great physician and herbalist Nicholas Culpeper, who used plant essences to heal. He published several significant books on herbs and essences in addition to a beauty manual called Arts MasterPiece, or the beautifying part ofPhysick (1660). The latter is full of recipes, the vast majority of which call for aromatic resins, herbs, oils or waters, and is still influential among contemporary aromatherapists. The book is dedicated to "To All Truly Virtuous Ladies." The Eighteenth Century In the eighteenth century, bathing was still frowned upon; it took two more centuries to convince most Europeans -nobility and commoners alike - that bathing was not only worthwhile but also a health necessity. Aromatics were seen as a favourable alternative to bathing. Society ladies who viewed bathing as dangerous and immodest would douse themselves in aromatic oils and paint their faces instead of washing them! The Nineteenth Century By the nineteenth century, scientific procedures and technology for procuring and testing plant essences had become more refined. In 1882, William Whitla published his Materia Medica, wherein he discusses the known constituents and properties of twenty-five different essences. But as the science of chemistry became more sophisticated, herbs were more often abandoned in lieu of synthetic drugs that seemed to act more powerfully. Apothecaries began to exclude essences from their inventory, keeping only those useful as flavourings and carminatives (substances that cause the expulsion of gas from the alimentary canal to relieve colic or intestinal pain). Research was carried out on a few plant essences in relation to their antiseptic properties. This work was conducted principally by French and Italian chemists and was useful in vindicating the qualities and usefulness of aromatic essences. At the same time, the European perfume industry experienced steady growth, using natural oils almost exclusively. In southern France, around the area of Grasse, the cultivation and extraction of essences became (and remains) a big business. The Twentieth Century In the earlier twentieth century, a chemist named Rene-Maurice Gattefosse, began working with essences in relation to the cosmetic industry. During an explosion that resulted from an experiment he suffered serious burns to his hands and the wounds soon became gangrenous; with the use of Lavender essential oil he was able to affect the perfect cure. After this episode, he proceeded to focus his research on the healing properties of plant essences. Gattefosse was the first to use the term 'aromatherapy'. He published his first book on the subject in 1937, followed by numerous papers and other books, mainly relating to therapy using essential oils. Since Gattefosse, there have been many others who have made significant contributions to the field of aromatherapy. Dr. Jean Valnet, a French physician who began his career as an army medic, remains the leading contributor. His work has brought the most legitimacy to the practice. He has published numerous books and articles specifically, essential oils. In print, he has always referred to his medical methodology as aromatherapy and phytotherapy (treatment using plant substances). He has written, lectured, and broadcast widely on his findings. In spite of the obvious innovation of his contributions to the field, he has modestly pointed out that during the Second World War aromatherapy - that is, the use of essential oils for healing - was fairly common in some military and civilian hospitals. Lacking supplies, the hospital staffs turned back to some of the other remedies that had been abandoned in favour of 'modern' cures. Working in hospitals during the war, no doubt inspired by Gattefosse, Valnet was given the impetus to pursue this field that had intrigued him since childhood. Marguerite Maury, the Austrian biochemist, contributed a more personalised, holistic vision of aromatherapy that re-emphasised the use of essential oils in massage. She developed the foundation of a medicinal/cosmetic therapy based on massage. In her book, The Secret of Life and Youth, she revives the ancient traditional philosophies of medicine that include aromatic massage, and she proposes the concept of an 'individual prescription' - a blend of essential oils that would harmonise the physical, psychological (mental/emotional), and spiritual nature of the patient, thereby balancing and normalising the whole person. Essential oils and plants were universally the dominant health and beauty aids from their first discovery until the late eighteenth century. Chemically manufactured drugs then gradually superseded aromatherapy. Aromatic essences were belittled, under-represented, and demystified in order to elevate the synthetic chemical industry, which was seen as more rigorous and quantifiable and, therefore, a better complement to modern science. However, the tradition of aromatics never entirely faded. Like the mummies in the Louvre - the corpses the Egyptians preserved with injections of cedarwood oil - latent knowledge of aromatics has survived for thousands of years. And now, we are seeing a resurgence of interest in this artful science of scent with its whole-body approach to healing. In this brief overview of the origins of the use of aromatic substances we have not mentioned that other civilisations also employed the use of aromatic plants to great effect. The American Indians are renowned for their use of plants in medicine and spiritualism, the native tribes in South America and South Africa, the Eskimos and the indigenous Aborigines of Australia to name but a few. Although some of these civilisations did not develop as did the European community their use of plants, in many and varied ways of application, for the treatment of various diseases and illnesses has led to many exciting discoveries in today's medicine. ----------------------------------------------- Reference Material: Tisserand, Robert - 1977 - The Art of Aromatherapy Valnet, Dr John - 1980 - The Practice of Aromatherapy, C. W. Daniel Co. Ltd Lawless, Julia - 1995 - The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Essential Oils, Element Books Battaglia, Salvatore - The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy